Insurgencies are prolonged conflicts between armed rebel groups and state forces, often rooted in deep political, ethnic, or social grievances. While many insurgencies have erupted and faded over time, some have persisted for decades. Among them, the communist insurgency in the Philippines is widely regarded as the longest ongoing insurgency in the world. Beginning in 1969, it continues to affect the country’s internal security landscape today. With a complex blend of ideology, social inequality, and armed struggle, this conflict offers a striking example of how insurgencies can become entrenched in national life for generations.
Origins of the Communist Insurgency in the Philippines
The roots of the longest insurgency in the world lie in the historical struggles of peasants and workers in the Philippines against social injustice and inequality. In the late 1960s, inspired by Maoist ideology, the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) was reestablished under the leadership of Jose Maria Sison. Shortly thereafter, its armed wing, the New People’s Army (NPA), was formed on March 29, 1969. The NPA began with a few dozen fighters but gradually expanded its presence in rural areas, taking advantage of widespread poverty, landlessness, and government neglect.
Ideological Foundations
The CPP-NPA insurgency is guided by Marxist-Leninist-Maoist principles. The movement seeks to overthrow the Philippine government and replace it with a socialist state led by a proletarian revolution. The insurgents claim to represent the interests of the rural poor, who suffer from lack of access to land, education, and essential services. Their strategy revolves around a protracted people’s war, beginning in the countryside and eventually encircling and capturing the cities.
Key Phases of the Conflict
Over the decades, the communist insurgency in the Philippines has gone through several phases marked by growth, internal divisions, peace negotiations, and renewed fighting. Despite numerous efforts to end the conflict, no lasting resolution has been achieved.
Growth and Consolidation (1970s1980s)
The insurgency gained momentum during the martial law era under President Ferdinand Marcos (19721981). The repression of political dissent and human rights abuses drove many Filipinos into the arms of the NPA. By the mid-1980s, the group was estimated to have nearly 25,000 armed fighters, operating in more than half of the country’s provinces.
Internal Crisis and Decline (1990s)
The early 1990s witnessed an ideological split within the movement, leading to purges and internal killings. These events severely weakened the insurgency. The government took advantage of this period of disarray to conduct military offensives and expand development programs in conflict-affected areas. The number of NPA fighters dropped significantly during this time.
Resurgence and Adaptation (2000s2010s)
Despite earlier setbacks, the insurgency adapted to modern conditions. The NPA continued to operate in remote areas, funding its operations through revolutionary taxes, extortion, and support from sympathizers. They also targeted infrastructure, military convoys, and government forces. While no longer as large as in the 1980s, the insurgency persisted with thousands of fighters and numerous underground support networks.
Peace Talks and Challenges
Successive Philippine administrations have engaged in peace negotiations with the CPP-NPA through its political arm, the National Democratic Front of the Philippines (NDFP). However, these talks have repeatedly failed due to mutual distrust, preconditions, and continuing hostilities on the ground.
Major Attempts at Peace
- President Fidel Ramos (19921998): Initiated formal peace talks and declared ceasefires, but talks eventually collapsed.
- President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (20012010): Resumed negotiations but designated the CPP-NPA as a terrorist organization, straining dialogue efforts.
- President Rodrigo Duterte (20162022): Initially hopeful due to his leftist ties, talks broke down after repeated clashes and mutual accusations.
Despite the breakdown of formal peace processes, localized peace initiatives and reintegration programs have shown some promise, especially when combined with community-based development efforts.
Social and Economic Dimensions
The longevity of the communist insurgency in the Philippines is closely linked to unresolved social and economic issues. Rural poverty, lack of land reform, and political exclusion remain significant drivers of armed resistance. Many regions affected by the conflict are economically marginalized, with limited access to education, healthcare, and infrastructure. In such conditions, insurgent narratives gain traction, particularly among youth and disenfranchised populations.
Impact on Security and Development
The insurgency has had far-reaching effects on Philippine society. Thousands of people have been killed or displaced, and infrastructure such as schools, roads, and power lines has often been targeted. The conflict has also hampered economic development in affected regions, discouraging investment and tourism.
Military spending and counterinsurgency operations have drained resources that could have been allocated to social programs. Meanwhile, human rights violations committed by both state and non-state actors have worsened public trust in government institutions. Civil society groups continue to call for a rights-based approach to resolving the conflict.
Recent Developments and the Path Ahead
In recent years, the Philippine government has intensified military campaigns against the NPA under a whole-of-nation approach, combining military action with socio-economic programs. The establishment of the National Task Force to End Local Communist Armed Conflict (NTF-ELCAC) in 2018 marked a new phase in the government’s counterinsurgency strategy.
While these efforts have led to the surrender of some NPA fighters and the dismantling of certain guerrilla fronts, the root causes of the insurgency remain largely unaddressed. Critics argue that excessive focus on militarization undermines peacebuilding and fails to create lasting change.
Recommendations for Lasting Peace
- Invest in inclusive rural development and access to education and healthcare
- Address landlessness through genuine agrarian reform
- Promote participatory governance and reduce corruption
- Foster dialogue and build trust between conflicting parties
- Protect human rights and uphold rule of law in conflict areas
The communist insurgency in the Philippines holds the unfortunate distinction of being the longest-running insurgency in the world. Its endurance highlights the persistent challenges of inequality, political exclusion, and underdevelopment that continue to affect many nations. While military operations may reduce the strength of armed groups in the short term, true and lasting peace will require meaningful reforms that address the structural roots of conflict. Only through inclusive, just, and sustained efforts can the cycle of violence finally come to an end in the Philippines.